We read about it all the time – students of lower socioeconomic status (SES) do not perform as well academically as those from higher SES. SES refers to the mix of economic, educational, and social factors that encompass the differences in economic wealth (such as educational opportunity and attainment), social status, and the ability to control aspects of one’s life. Both laboratory and societal research point to early enriched environments as essential to success. They also show that stress, which is often found in households of low SES, can adversely affect cognitive function. Given the wealth of information on the cycle of reduced opportunities for enriched experiences and stress effects on cognitive development, a seemingly basic question would be, “Can we change this cycle? And, if so, how?”
Child Development and Socioeconomic Status
Martha Farah, a cognitive neuroscientist known for her early work in visual processing, has recently become interested in the link between child development and SES. Her goal is to use cognitive neuroscience approaches to determine the effect of SES strata on cognitive systems and to create a neurocognitive profile of these effects. She has begun to do this by studying the association between SES and cognitive functions as measured by cognitive tests and school achievement scores. Using this neurocognitive profile, she and her colleagues aim to identify the cognitive areas affected by SES and to create interventions that could halt the pervasive achievement gap we see in education that is associated with SES.
Achievement Gap Interventions
What might an intervention look like? In cognitive psychology, cognitive functions are divided into five areas: attention, memory, perception, language, and executive function, which include reasoning, problem solving, and decision making. To create an intervention, scientists can examine data garnered from standardized school tests and other tests. By determining which cognitive area each question taps into, they can quantify each cognitive function and compare scores from children in low SES households to children in middle and/or high SES households.
Cognitive Function
Attention
Memory
Perception
Language*
Executive Function*
*Kindergartners from low SES households performed worse than counterparts
Attention
Memory
Perception
Language*
Executive Function*
*Kindergartners from low SES households performed worse than counterparts
In fact, these tests are similar to what Farah and colleagues have already undertaken in children of various age groups. Results show that kindergartners from low SES households performed worse than kindergartners from middle SES households on language and executive function tasks (Noble, Norman, and Farah, 2005). These findings support previous research on language function and poverty (Whitehurst, 1997) and suggest early modulation of language and executive function by societal factors.
In addition to using data from behavioral findings, cognitive neuroscientists have linked specific brain regions to cognitive functions. Although each process is not completely distinctive, it is commonly accepted that the occipitotemporal region is associated with visual attention and perception, the parietal region with spatial attention and perception, the medial temporal region with memory, the left perisylvian region with language, and the prefrontal region with the executive system. These systems can be assessed behaviorally by tasks that tax the function of interest, while placing a minimal burden on the other systems.
In addition to using data from behavioral findings, cognitive neuroscientists have linked specific brain regions to cognitive functions. Although each process is not completely distinctive, it is commonly accepted that the occipitotemporal region is associated with visual attention and perception, the parietal region with spatial attention and perception, the medial temporal region with memory, the left perisylvian region with language, and the prefrontal region with the executive system. These systems can be assessed behaviorally by tasks that tax the function of interest, while placing a minimal burden on the other systems.
Brain Region (Cognitive Function)
Occipitotemporal (Attention)
Medial Temporal (Memory)
Parietal (Perception)
Left Perisylvian (Language)
Prefrontal (Executive Function)
Occipitotemporal (Attention)
Medial Temporal (Memory)
Parietal (Perception)
Left Perisylvian (Language)
Prefrontal (Executive Function)
Because behavioral findings pointed to language function being correlated with SES, Farah and colleagues measured differences in the left perisylvian and fusiform regions associated with language using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (Noble et al., 2006). They found a relationship between phonological language skills and brain activation for children from low SES households; however, that relationship lessened in children from higher SES households. The authors conclude that socioeconomic factors have an effect on brain–behavior relationships in reading, and indicate that cognitive, social, and neurobiological factors influence reading development.
Lastly, it should be noted that the effects of SES on behavior are unlikely to be isolated to particular localized brain regions. Standard fMRI analysis looks at signals from a very small area of the brain one voxel (volumetric pixel) at a time (Raizada and Kashiyama, 2009). It is highly probable that multiple parts of the brain act together in concert, especially in relation to a phenomenon with multiple facets such as SES.
Lastly, it should be noted that the effects of SES on behavior are unlikely to be isolated to particular localized brain regions. Standard fMRI analysis looks at signals from a very small area of the brain one voxel (volumetric pixel) at a time (Raizada and Kashiyama, 2009). It is highly probable that multiple parts of the brain act together in concert, especially in relation to a phenomenon with multiple facets such as SES.
Close the Achievement Gap with Brain-Based Instruction
These few studies give us a general idea of the approach that cognitive neuroscientists are taking to examine the relationship between SES and child development. This approach can offer us insight on the type of interventions needed to address these developmental differences. It can also address the developmental timing of these brain changes so we are aware of the critical periods of these cognitive functions. These types of studies are rare, despite the large impact they could have on our society. There are few scientists investigating these connections and even less funding for such research. All of this in spite of the fact that SES has a large impact on academic achievement and 17.4% of children in the United States, according to the 2007 Census. The more cognitive neuroscience can tell us about the effects of SES on the brain, the more teachers can look to brain-based instructional strategies to help close the achievement gap.
Resources
Noble KG, Norman MF, and Farah MJ. (2005). Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Developmental Science 8:1,74– 87
Noble KG, Wolmetz ME, Ochs LG, FarahMJ, and McCandliss BM. (2006). Brain–behavior relationships in reading acquisition are modulated by socioeconomic factors. Developmental Science 9:6,642– 654
Raizada R D, and Kishiyama MM. (2010). Effects of socioeconomic status on brain development, and how cognitive neuroscience may contribute to levelling the playing field. Frontiers of Hum. Neurosci. 4 , 3
Whitehurst, G.J. (1997) Language processes in context: language learning in children reared in poverty. In Research on Communication and Language Disorders: Contribution to Theories of Language Development (Adamson, L.B. and Romski, M.A., eds), 233 – 266
Noble KG, Norman MF, and Farah MJ. (2005). Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Developmental Science 8:1,74– 87
Noble KG, Wolmetz ME, Ochs LG, FarahMJ, and McCandliss BM. (2006). Brain–behavior relationships in reading acquisition are modulated by socioeconomic factors. Developmental Science 9:6,642– 654
Raizada R D, and Kishiyama MM. (2010). Effects of socioeconomic status on brain development, and how cognitive neuroscience may contribute to levelling the playing field. Frontiers of Hum. Neurosci. 4 , 3
Whitehurst, G.J. (1997) Language processes in context: language learning in children reared in poverty. In Research on Communication and Language Disorders: Contribution to Theories of Language Development (Adamson, L.B. and Romski, M.A., eds), 233 – 266
Read more about how people learn.
Leona Zamora, Ph.D. Research Associate
Dr. Leona Zamora is a Research Associate with The BERC Group, Inc. She received her PhD in Cognitive Psychology from the University of Washington. Previously, she worked with the Department of Neurosurgery with clinical populations to study the underlying neural components of learning and memory. She has taught many courses at the university level and is passionate about creating opportunities for all students to reach their potential.
